Korean+Culture

National Symbols
From http://www.teachenglishinasia.net/national-symbols-of-south-korea The national symbols of South Korea reflect it history, the beauty of the country, and the pride and patriotism of its people. Korean symbols such as the national flag, the anthem, the national flower, and national emblem are born out of the culture in Korea and represent the heart and 'Seoul' of the nation.

The South Korean National Flag
The national flag of South Korea (Taegeukgi) represents the independence of the country after 36 years of Japanese occupation. Chinese philosophy influenced Korean culture and it is this philosophical thought that is evident in the use of the Taegeuk symbol on the national flag. The Taegeuk is a sideways yin-yang symbolizing the unified force of opposites. Korean s have taken this symbol to represent their sense of peace, harmony, and unity in the world.

The South Korean National Anthem
The national anthem of South Korea, entitled Aegukga (애국가:愛國歌), had a bumpy road on its way to anthemdon, but it never lost its place in the hearts of South Koreans. It first make its musical debut in 1896 where it was often sung to the tune of 'Auld Lang Syne', the Scottish fold song brought over by American Christian missionaries. Music was created for the anthem in 1937 by the composer Ahn Ik-tae (안익태;安益泰), who felt the anthem should have a tune that was uniquely Korean. The new anthem music took hold throughout the country after liberation from Japanese occupation at the end of World War II.

The South Korean National Flower
The national flower is the //mungunghwa// (무궁화;無窮花), called garden hibiscus or rose of Sharon in English. The hibiscus syriacus has been beloved to the Korean people for centuries. Beginning in July, the beauty of this flower can be found gracing the Korean landscape. The flower takes its name from the Korean words for immortality, //mugung// (무궁;無窮), and flower, //hwa// (화;花). The //mugunghwa// is known for being a hearty flower, and thus aptly represents the tenacity of the Korean people.

The South Korean National Emblem
National emblems are a symbolic representation of a nation's patriotism. They are often animals and are generally displayed on flags and other item of national pride. The national emblem of South Korea is the magpie.

Most Prevalent Religions from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_religions

 * Religion in Korea** encompasses a number of different traditions. [|Buddhism], [|Christianity] , [|Confucianism] , and traditional [|shamanism] all play a role in [|Korea] 's religious tradition. The modern separation of Korea into [|North] and [|South Korea] has also shaped religious practice, especially in the [|communist] North.
 * Religion in South Korea **

//Main article: [|Religion in South Korea] // Just more than 40 percent of South Koreans profess religious affiliation. That affiliation is spread among a great variety of traditions, including [|Buddhism] (34 percent), [|Christianity] (21 percent), [|Confucianism] (0.2 percent), and [|shamanism]. These numbers should be treated with some caution, however, as (with the exception of Christianity) there are few if any meaningful distinctions between believers and nonbelievers in Buddhism and Confucianism, which comprise more of a set of ethical values than a religion. The cultural impact of these movements is far more widespread than the number of formal adherents suggests. A variety of “new religions” have emerged since the mid-nineteenth century, including Cheondogyo. A very small [|Muslim minority] also exists.
 * Religion in North Korea **

//Main article: [|Religion in North Korea] // Traditionally, Koreans have practiced Buddhism and observed the tenets of Confucianism. Besides a small number of practicing Buddhists (about 11.4 million, under the auspices of the official [|Korean Buddhist Federation] ), the population also includes some Christians (about 10,000 [|Protestants] and 4,000 [|Roman Catholics], under the auspices of the [|Korean Christian Federation] ) and an indeterminate number of native Cheondogyo (Heavenly Way) adherents. However, religious activities are almost nonexistent. [|North Korea] has 300 Buddhist temples, but they are considered cultural relics rather than active places of worship. Several schools for religious education exist, including three-year religious colleges for training Protestant and Buddhist clergy. In 1989 [|Kim Il Sung University] established a religious studies program, but its graduates usually go on to work in the [|foreign trade] sector. Although the constitution provides for [|freedom of religious belief], in practice the government severely discourages organized religious activity except as supervised by the aforementioned officially recognized groups. Constitutional changes made in 1992 allow authorized religious gatherings and the construction of buildings for religious use and deleted a clause about freedom of anti-religious propaganda. The constitution also stipulates that religion "should not be used for purposes of dragging in foreign powers or endangering public security."

Common National Holidays
from http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/Korean-Culture.html#Holidays

Korean New Years [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/korean-new-years.jpg caption="Korean New Years"]]
There are actually two Korean New Years. This is because Koreans go by two calenders; one being the same people use in the West, and the other being the lunar calender. The Korean New Years based on the Western calender is similar to our New Years in the United States. It is a big national holiday in Korea as well, and occurs on January 1st just like it does here. During this holiday, many relatives get together to share time together and talk. In Korea, there are some old traditions that some people will still follow. One is to visit the oldest member of the family and bow toward them to show respect and to wish them a long life (this would occur on New Years Eve). The following day on January 1st people will pay respect to ancestors by offering food and wine. This ceremony is called Jaesa. At the beginning of the ceremony, the names of the ancestors are pinned to a board. The oldest family members bows and offers the wine to the ancestors who have passed away. Then, the names are burned. Later in the day, relatives talk about old times and eat food. The traditional food usually eaten on New Years Day is Duk Gook, a type of soup. Kimchi is always present. The other New Years Day is the Lunar New Years. It is usually around February. People wear the traditional clothes called Hanbok. It also is a day relatives may get together. People will exchange gifts, and the children will definitely be happy because they are usually given money on Lunar New Years. Sometimes the Lunar New Years and the Solar New Years are pretty common and involve similar traditions. The main idea behind it all is to wish everyone a happy new year, good luck in the new year, same as everywhere else in the world, as well as pay respect to those who have passed away. Independence Day Similar to our July 4th Independence Day, the Korean Independence Day represents when Koreans declared themselves independent from Japanese rule. It is on March 1st every year, and began in 1919 when the declared themselves independent from Japanese rule. Japan had taken over Korea in 1910. For the next 9 years, Koreans would live a hard life under Japanese control. Since they declared independence, every year they proudly stand for their independence from all foreign rule, just as we do here in America on July 4th.

Chuseok [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/chuseok.jpg caption="Chuseok"]]
Chuseok is the same as our "harvest moon." It takes place on the 15th day of the 8th month going by the lunar calendar. It is a day where the full moon appears larger and may look orange. This holiday is celebrated in many asian countries.

Christmas [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/christmas.jpg caption="Christmas"]]
Since Christianity took hold in Korea, Christmas has been a growing holiday there as well. It is a little different than here in the west though. Many young people will use Christmas as a day to go out and party and then will spend New Years with their family, which is just the opposite of many Western families.

Children's Day [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/childrens-day.jpg caption="Children's Day"]]
On Children's Day, May 5th of every year, children are given money for free and taken on outings.

Hangul Day [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/hangul-day.jpg caption="Hangul Day"]]
Hangul Day, also known as Hangul Proclamation Day and Korean Alphabet Day, is on October 9th in South Korea and January 15th in North Korea. It is just a day to celebrate the creation of the language!

Valentines Day, White Day, and Black Day
All of these are related!

Valentines Day is on February 14th, as it is here. On Valentines Day, girls will give chocolates and other gifts to the guys. It is similar to our Valentines Day but is more one-sided. So, what should be done? White Day was created. On White Day, one month later on March 14th, guys will give more expensive chocolates and gifts to the girls. These chocolates come in white boxes. This way it isn't so one-sided! But what about the people who feel left out on those days because they have nobody to give chocolates to? That is what Black Day is for! On Black Day, another month later on April 14th, people who have nobody all get together with their friends and eat JaJang Noodles, which are black in color. It is not as popular as Valentines Day and White Day, but it is still celebrated by some people!

Traditions behind specific holidays
__Lunar New Year__ (“SUL-NAL”) Traditions: It is considered not only tradition, but duty for families to spend this day, or up to 3 days together. The day starts with paying respects to ancestors in a ceremony which involves presenting A LOT of food, wine, burning incense to portraits of ancestors, then bowing to them (“JAE SA”). This is then followed by another bowing ceremony called SAE BAE where living elders are given respect in the form of bowing. There is an order to the bowing; the oldest family member (usually grandparents or great-grandparents) are bowed to first by the oldest descendant and spouse, then moving down the generations in tedious order. Everything is in order of hierarchy based on age. The older generation adults bestow their blessings with words of encouragement and advice, and envelopes of monetary gifts. With many people converting to Christianity, however, JAE SA, is not usually done any longer because it is considered to be “worshipping idols.” Many households have replaced it with a remembrance prayer or worship service instead. Foods: DDUK-GOOK (rice cake soup) for good luck Games: Kite Flying Traditional kites (yon) are made from bamboo sticks and Korean paper. Kite fighting involves trying to slice through an opponent's string with small blades on the edges of very maneuverable kites. Yut (Four-Stick Game) There are 4 sticks, flat on one side and curved on the other, and a game board. There are usually 2-4 teams, with each team having 4 pieces to clear the board. Each player has to flip the 4 sticks into the air (usually with a minimum height requirement) onto a landing mat (if any of the 4 sticks go off the boundary mat, that player loses his turn). Each flat side up is a space moved. If all 4 sticks are flat side up, 4 spaces are moved and another turn is awarded. If all 4 sticks are flat side down, the player moves 5 spaces and is given another turn. If you land on an opponent’s piece, you get to go again. __ Harvest Moon Festival __ (“Chu Sok”) Traditions: Harvest Moon Festival is on the 15th day of the 8th lunar cycle, typically at the end of September. It’s a sort-of Thanksgiving, with the brightest and biggest full moon of the year. Like Lunar New Year, those who still perform “JAE SA” will do so on this day as well. However, there is no “SAE BAE” to the living elders. Chu Sok is considered to be the biggest holiday of Korean culture. Foods: Usually dessert type of foods including: ~Assorted Rice Cakes, particularly “SONG PYUN” (rice cakes stuffed with either sesame seeds, beans, chestnuts, or dates) ~Sesame Seed Hard Candies “GKAE GANG JUNG” ~Honey cookies “YAK GWA” Games:

“KANG KANG SUE WOL LAE” Ten to twenty women gather together and form a circle and sing songs and dance together. It looks like beautiful butterflies fluttering around. This ceremony is only done by women who dress in the traditional Korean dress.

Nol-Ttwigi (Korean See-saw) Nol-ttwigi is a standing see-saw. Participants stand on their side of a long, flat wood board and jump into the air, catapulting their standing partner into the air. They go back and forth, seeing how high they can toss each other up and down.

Korean Wrestling (“SHI LIM”) Similar, but not identical, to Japanese Sumo Wrestling Archery Tug of War

[[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/traditional-korean-society.jpg caption="traditional Korean society"]]

 * [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Gyeongbokgung-Palace-Seoul-Thumbnail.jpg align="center" caption="Gyeongbokgung Palace on lily Pond, Seoul" link="http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Gyeongbokgung-Palace-Seoul-Optimized.jpg"]] || [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Korean-Country-Thumbnail.jpg width="200" height="150" align="center" caption="Korean country a few hours from Seoul" link="http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Korean-Country-Optimized.jpg"]] ||
 * [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Korean-Waterfall-Thumbnail.jpg width="200" height="150" align="center" caption="Waterfall in Korea" link="http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Korean-Waterfall-Optimized.jpg"]] || [[image:http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Anapji-Thumbnail.jpg width="200" height="150" align="center" caption="Anapji Garden and Lake Complex" link="http://www.learnkoreanlanguage.com/images/Anapji-Optimized.jpg"]] ||

Although South Korea is modernizing extremely fast, it still holds on to many traditional values and the old way of life. Where there are not highly populated cities, there are rural area's which are still relatively poor, and still follow traditional ways of life. In cities, millions of people live in apartments, but in the rural area's you will find traditional housing. Also, even though the cities are headed toward very modern times, people still hold onto some traditional values. One thing that guarantee's this is the language. The language has traditional values of social status and respect built directly into it. Words change depending on who you are speaking with. This will keep traditional values always present.

Foods from [|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_cuisine
Korean cuisine is largely based on [|rice], [|noodles] , [|tofu] , [|vegetables] , and [|meats]. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dishes (// [|banchan] //) that accompany the ubiquitous steam-cooked short-grain rice and [|soup]. Every meal is accompanied by numerous banchan. [|[1]] [|Kimchi] is a fermented, spicy vegetable dish usually made of [|baechu], radish, or cucumber. At least one type of kimchi is served as // [|banchan] // at virtually every meal, year-round. It is also a common ingredient in other Korean recipes. Korean food is usually seasoned with [|sesame oil], [|doenjang] (fermented [|soybean] paste), [|soy sauce] , [|salt] , [|garlic] , [|ginger] and [|gochujang] (red chili paste). Korea is the largest consumer of [|garlic], ahead of the rest of Asia (particularly [|China] and [|Thailand] , excluding [|Japan] ) and the Northern Mediterranean (mainly Spain, Italy, and Greece). Korean cuisine varies seasonally. During winter, traditional food usually relies on kimchi and other pickled vegetables preserved in big ceramic containers stored underground in outdoor courtyards. Preparation of Korean food is generally very labor-intensive. Korean royal cuisine, once only enjoyed by the royal court of the [|Joseon] period, takes hours to days to prepare. It must harmonize contrasting characteristics such as warm and cold, hot and mild, rough and soft, solid and liquid, and a balance of presentation colors. It is often served on hand-forged bronzeware or // [|bangjjaa] //. The foods are served in a specific arrangement of small dishes alternating to highlight the shape and color of the ingredients. Some of these traditional royal cuisines, which can cost as much as [|₩] 240,000 (~US$265) per person excluding drinks, include service by exclusive waiters. Restaurants that serve traditional royal cuisine can be found in select locations within the city of [|Seoul]. Imperial cuisine has received a recent boost in popularity due to // [|Dae Jang Geum] //, a widespread, popular Korean television drama about a humble girl becoming the royal head chef during the [|Joseon] period. There is also a [|Korean tea ceremony].
 * Korean cuisine** is based on the traditional foods and preparation techniques of [|Korea] . From the complex [|Korean royal court cuisine] to regional specialties and modern [|fusion cuisine], their ingredients and preparation are richly varied. Many dishes are becoming internationally popular. The foods described in this article are very different from [|Korean royal court cuisine] , which is, to this day, widely enjoyed by the Korean masses.

Korean art and architecture from http://go.grolier.com/
The art of the **Korean** peninsula (see [|South **Korea**] ; [|North **Korea**] ) demonstrates the resilient artistic spirit of a nation that has withstood numerous foreign invasions and successive **cultural** inundations without losing its own ethnic character (see [|**Korea**] [|, history of] ). In many of its works, Chinese styles were modified to suit native taste or brought to further development, whereas in others they were rejected in favor of artistic elements reflecting native preferences. In addition to adopting elements of Chinese **culture**, **Korea** played a part in the transmission of Chinese civilization to the Japanese archipelago. **Korea**'s pivotal role as a "**cultural** bridge" between [|China] and [|Japan] gave rise to certain similarities in the traditional arts of the three East Asian countries (see [|Chinese art and architecture] ; [|Japanese art and architecture] ).

Prehistoric Period
Prehistoric artifacts unearthed in **Korea** yield evidence that the **Korean** people are descended from nomadic Mongolian tribes (see [|Mongolia] ) that migrated from [|Central Asia]. Cone-shaped [|Neolithic] pots with incised comb-pattern design, dating from //c.//3000 B.C., closely resemble vessels discovered in the [|Volga River] valley and southern [|Siberia]. Furthermore, excavations of ceremonial bronze objects such as rattles and finials, from the late [|Bronze Age] or early [|Iron Age] (3d–2d century B.C. ), suggest the importance of shamanism in prehistoric **Korea** (see [|shaman] ). Shamanism originated among Russo-Tungusic tribes, becoming a dominant spiritual force in northeast Asia, and prehistoric remains reveal notable ethnic differences between **Koreans** and the (Han) Chinese. In the light of archaeological findings, it is not surprising that the [|**Korean**] [| language] belongs to the [|Altaic] group, which includes such polysyllabic, agglutinative tongues as Mongolian, Tungusic, and Japanese.

The Historical Period
The rise of three independent kingdoms under hereditary monarchies inspired new developments in **Korean** art.

The Three Kingdoms Period (1st century B.C. –7th century A.D. ).
One empire, the [|Koguryo] (37 B.C. – A.D. 668), encompassed the northern half of the **Korean** peninsula and southern [|Manchuria] ; at the peak of its power in the 5th century, Koguryo was the front-runner in political and **cultural** development. Owing to its close proximity to China, it received [|Confucianism] and [|Buddhism] as early as A.D. 372. Koguryo tomb murals emphasizing ancestor worship show some influences from the art of China, yet they also display native taste in themes, most notably an interest in astronomy and scenes from daily life, including hunting, wrestling, and dancing. Stylistically, the use of animated lines suggesting vivid movement reflects the lively inner spirit of the Koguryo people, who possessed a veritable empire through their expansionist policy. The [|Paekche] kingdom (18 B.C. – A.D. 660), which occupied the most fertile agricultural zone in the southwestern part of the **Korean** peninsula, developed a closer relationship with southern China, and espoused Buddhism and Confucianism during the late 4th century. Buddhist sculptures from this kingdom are well known for the "Paekche smile," a warm and serene facial expression created by soft lines and modeling. Since Paekche also had close relations with Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries, it played a significant role in the formation of early Japanese Buddhist art. The //Kudara Kannon// (Horyuji temple), a famous 7th-century sculpture celebrated for its tranquil, refined beauty, may have been sent from **Korea** or made by a Paekche artist then residing in Japan; the word //Kudara// is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese characters for //Paekche.// [|Silla] (57 B.C. – A.D. 668) was, at least initially, the most conservative kingdom, due to its peripheral location in the southwestern part of the **Korean** peninsula. Consequently, a greater degree of native elements may be observed in its artworks. Numerous gold crowns, richly embellished with antler and tree motifs, as well as jades, have been found in 5th–6th-century royal tomb mounds in the Silla capital, [|Kyongju]. The ubiquitous presence of gold objects in these tombs suggests that the ancestors of the Silla ruling class migrated from the [|Altai] region, where native people practiced shamanism and displayed a similar taste in gold ornaments. Another distinctive work from Kyongju is the Ch'omsongdae ("Star-gazing Tower"), the oldest astronomical observatory in East Asia, constructed in 634, presumably for court astrologers. Built of 366 stone blocks, it has 12 stones around the base and 30 vertical layers, symbolizing the months and days of the year. After Buddhism was instituted in 535, Silla artisans created sophisticated sculptures by adopting and further developing the Northern Qi style of China. A unique cult of [|Maitreya] (the [|Buddha] -of-the-future) developed in Silla, inspiring the creation of calmly posed, elegant renderings of the youthful deity. André [|Malraux] has described the large bronze //Maitreya in Meditation// (National Museum of **Korea**, Seoul) as "one of the most beautiful sculpture pieces produced by the human race."

United Silla Period (668–935).
By unifying the three kingdoms, Silla created a stable environment for a more homogeneous Buddhist **culture** to flourish. The Pulguksa monastery and the Sokkuram cave temple, originally commissioned in 751, attest to the culmination of Buddhist **culture** in Kyongju. The granite stairs leading to the Pulguksa temple, on the slope of a low mountain, symbolize the arduous path toward enlightenment that separates the realm of peace from the world of pain. Like most **Korean** Buddhist monasteries, this temple is located in the deep recesses of wooded mountains noted for their tranquil scenic beauty, and harmonizes with the natural contours of its surroundings. Blocks of stones were also used to construct the Sokkuram Grotto on the crest of Mount Toham. As the only cave temple in the world built by humans, Sokkuram is truly unique in structure, with an antechamber and a domed main hall containing images rich in Buddhist iconography, including a colossal sculpture of the Sakyamuni Buddha, surrounded by symmetrically arranged relief-sculptures of [|bodhisattvas], arhats (monks who have achieved enlightenment), and guardians. In many of these sculptures, [|Tang] -dynasty Chinese style was brought to a greater development through skillful foreshortening of the figures, using fine lines to create some of the most serene yet vivid images in **Korean** Buddhist art.

Koryo Dynasty (918–1392).
The [|Koryo] dynasty, established after a period of strife and civil wars, maintained close relations with [|Song] -dynasty China, inspiring creations of new styles in art. Although rulers endeavored to realize Confucian ideals in the realm of politics, the Koryo people, both aristocrats and commoners, embraced Buddhism as their personal religion. The Koryo dynasty therefore gave rise to a resplendent Buddhist **culture**, its religious fervor clearly demonstrated in the carving of 81,137 wooden printing blocks of //tripitaka// (a complete set of Buddhist sutras; see [|Buddhist sacred literature] ) in 1251; these are now housed in [|Haeinsa Temple], the oldest set of their kind in East Asia. An ardent devotion to Buddhism is also reflected in the large number of ritual paintings commissioned by aristocrats to ensure peace in the kingdom, and to perpetuate the well-being, power, and wealth of individual benefactors, both in this world and beyond. In style, principal figures such as [|Amitabha] and [|Avalokitesvara] were represented in an enlarged scale, using mineral colors and fine gold outlines to convey a remarkable sense of mystery, transparency, and lightness emanating from the sacred figures. The refined tastes of Koryo aristocrats are also apparent in the large variety of exquisite [|celadon] ceramics made for their use during the 12th and 13th centuries. Although Korean potters learned the celadon glazing technique from Chinese ceramics produced in [|Zhejiang] province, they developed their own unique style in form, color, and design. Unlike Chinese celadons that made use of nontransparent glaze with minimal decoration, Koryo wares have a large variety of shapes, a wide range of transparent jade tones, and diverse designs that can be seen under the clear glaze. For decoration, Korean potters invented an inlay technique in which nature motifs such as birds, flowers, trees, and clouds, as well as abstract designs, were incised in the soft clay, then filled in with white or red clay. When fired, the white clay remained white, while the red turned black, producing graceful and tranquil designs unsurpassed in beauty.

Choson Dynasty (1392–1910).
The establishment of the [|Choson] dynasty—with its capital in [|Seoul] —spurred new developments in the arts through close relations with [|Ming] China and the adoption of Confucianism as the state philosophy. Early Choson kings built splendid palaces in the new capital to symbolize their power and status. While the Kyongbokkung palace was inspired by the axial placement of buildings in the grand [|Forbidden City] in Beijing, the [|Ch'angdokkung Palace] displays a stronger element of native architectural taste. Its asymmetrically arranged halls and pavilions harmonize with the contours of the surrounding hilly terrains, creating a peaceful yet stately atmosphere; it therefore became the favorite residence of Choson rulers. Change in monarchy also produced new styles in Choson ceramics. White porcelain wares with simple, sturdy silhouettes were made during the 15th century in government kilns to suit the austere taste of the Confucian court. On other white porcelains, simple floral and tree motifs, including pine, bamboo, and plum, were drawn on the surface in cobalt blue to cater to the Chinese-inspired tastes of Confucian scholars. In contrast, stonewares made for commoners from the 15th to the 17th century feature rugged surfaces and informal design motifs, such as fish, flowers, and plants, produced by incision, stamping, sgraffito, or painting in iron oxide. As humble **Korean** peasant bowls became an important part of the Japanese [|tea ceremony], a large number of Choson potters were taken to Japan, during the Japanese invasions of 1592–98. There they established kilns and founded new traditions in Japanese ceramics. The most significant innovations in Choson painting took place during the relatively peaceful reigns of Kings Yongjo (r. 1724–74) and Chongjo (r. 1775–1800) in the 18th century. At this time the //Silhak// ("Practical Learning") philosophy spread among progressive scholars and artists (the philosophy emphasizes economic and social reforms). Considered the golden age of **Korean** painting, this era was marked by the emergence not only of paintings of **Korean** landscapes but also of genre images depicting ordinary people. Many artists, including the literati-painter [|Chong Son], rejected Chinese-style landscapes and brushwork, creating paintings of actual **Korean** landscapes that they saw (referred to as "True View"), using simpler, more vigorous brushwork. Genre images reached great heights under the patronage of the enlightened King Chongjo, who had a profound interest in improving the lives of commoners. The celebrated court artist Kim Hongdo (1745–//c.//1806) captured ordinary people's daily lives and emotions with vividness and humor, utilizing rugged and simplified ink brushwork. On the other hand, the unorthodox court painter Sin Yunbok (b. //c.//1759) used rich colors and details with thin, sensitive ink brushstrokes to portray beautiful courtesans and self-indulgent upper-class men. The late Choson dynasty was also notable for the emergence of distinctive folk paintings, whose auspicious subjects, principally figures, animals, and flowers, were rendered in strong colors and shapes. These works reflected the commoners' earthly hopes for success, fame, and wealth, as well as protection from life's hazards and maladies.

The 20th Century.
Saehyang P. Chung
 * Korean** art of the 20th century is marked by great diversity, like the modern art of many other countries. During the turbulent colonial period of Japanese occupation, **Korea** was introduced to Western oil painting, and artists such as Yi Insong (1912–50) portrayed young women in bleak landscapes emblematic of **Korea**'s situation. After the great suffering caused by the [|**Korean**] [| War], the individualistic artist Yi Chungsop (1916–56) produced images of cows utilizing powerfully distorted brushwork, symbolizing both **Korea** and the artist's personal anguish. Pak Sugun (1914–65) portrayed ordinary men and women in a simplified, compressed style, using angular lines and a textured palette to express the spirit of the **Korean** survivors of the war. In his ink paintings Yi Sangbom (1897–1972) depicted the enduring landscapes of the **Korean** countryside, using short brushstrokes and strongly contrasting tones and texture. During the 1980s, with the economy booming, a new movement called //Minjung misul// ("People's Art") developed in protest against the modernism in art that ignored the dark side of an industrialized society, particularly the poverty and suffering of factory workers and farmers. With the globalization movement of the 1990s, a gradual blending of various media and styles occurred, so that the creations of many contemporary artists find parallels with works of art in the West. Even before **Korea** became "globalized," Nam June [|Paik] , a **Korean** artist residing abroad, achieved great fame by creating art from images originating in television and video. It may be envisioned, therefore, that in the future many more innovative **Korean** artists will make significant contributions to the arts of this ever-shrinking and complex world.

Bibliography:
Cambon, Pierre, //L'Art Coréen au Musée Guimet// (2001). Cho, Cha-yong, et al., //Traditional **Korean** Painting: A Lost Art Rediscovered// (1990). Covell, Jon C. and Alan, //Japan's Hidden History: **Korean** Impact on Japanese **Culture**// (1984), and //The World of **Korean** Ceramics// (1986). Griffing, Robert, //The Art of the **Korean** Potter: Silla, Koryo, Yi// (1968). Kim, Chewon, and Lee, Lena Kim, //Arts of **Korea**// (1974). Kim, Hongnam, ed., **//Korean//** //Arts of the Eighteenth Century: Splendor and Simplicity// (1993). Kim, Kumja P., ed., //Hopes and Aspirations: Decorative Paintings of **Korea**// (1998). Kim, Wonyong, **//Korean//** //Art Treasures// (1987). Lew, Young Ick, ed., **//Korean//** //Art Tradition: A Historical Survey// (1993). McCune, Evelyn, //The Arts of **Korea**: An Illustrated History// (1961). Mino, Yutaka, et al., //The Radiance of Jade and the Clarity of Water: **Korean** Ceramics from the Ataka Collection// (1991). Moes, Robert J., //Auspicious Spirits: **Korean** Folk Paintings and Related Objects// (1983). Nelson, Sarah M., //The Archaeology of **Korea**// (1991). Park, Sam Y., //An Introduction to **Korean** Architecture// (1991). Portal, Jane, **//Korea//**//: Art and Archaeology// (2000). Smith, Judith, ed., //Arts of **Korea**// (1998). Whitfield, Roderick, and Goepper, Roger, eds., //Treasures from **Korea**: Art through 5000 Years// (1984).
 * Korea** Foundation, **//Korean//** //**Cultural** Heritage: Fine Arts// (1994).

Language(s) Spoken from [|http://go.grolier.com/
Korean language

Widely believed to be a member of the Altaic **languages** (see [|Ural-Altaic **languages**] ), **Korean** was brought down into the peninsula by early invaders who first entered the region in Neolithic times. In the Old **Korean** period (18 B.C. – A.D. 935), each of the three Kingdoms of Silla, Koguryo, and Paekche appears to have at least its own dialect and perhaps its own **language**, although the sources for these earliest stages of the **language** are too fragmentary to clarify the situation. Middle **Korean** was apparently the final stage in the historical development of the variety of Old **Korean** used in the Silla kingdom, especially as that **language** had survived into the period of Unified Silla, from the 7th to the 10th century. Not until late Middle **Korean** are there extensive records, written in an indigenous phonetic script of great precision and efficiency, called //hangul,// promulgated by King Sejong in 1446. Today the North employs //hangul// exclusively. In the South, the use of borrowed Chinese characters to supplement //hangul// is discouraged but continues to be tolerated. [javascript:openContribWindow('/cgi-bin/article?templatename=/article/contrib.html&assetid=17380-x', 500, 400, 'blurbpopup', 'no')|Roy Andrew Miller ]
 * Korean ** is the **language** spoken by approximately 75 million people living on the **Korean** peninsula: 46 million of them in the Republic of **Korea** ( [|South **Korea**] ) and 25 million in the Democratic People's Republic ( [|North **Korea**] ), with most of the remainder in parts of China adjoining **Korea**. The current political partition of the country, along with the resulting different economic and social systems, has tended to strengthen long-standing linguistic divergences between North and South.

Bibliography:
Kim-Renaud, Y.-K., ed., //The **Korean** Alphabet: Its History and Structure// (1997). Martin, S. E., et al., //Beginning **Korean**// (1969; repr. 1986), and //A Reference Grammar of **Korean**// (1992). Sohn, Ho-Min, //The **Korean** **Language**// (1999). Soong, S. K., //Explorations in **Korean** Syntax and Semantics// (1988).
 * Korean** National Committee for UNESCO, //The **Korean** **Language**// (1983).